Eye is an sensory organ that allows you to see. It is capture visible light from the surrounding you and turn it into a form your brain uses to create your sense of vision. Your brain doesn’t have sensory abilities of its own.
The eye or the organ of sight is situated in the orbital cavity of the skull and it is well protected by it’s bony walls. The orbit also contains the muscles of the eyeball, their nerves, vessels, the lacrimal gland and fat.
Human Ear are divided into Three part’s are following –
Malleus :- Malleus is the largest & First bone in these three bones. It look likes Hammer in shape.
It is formed by modification of Articulate Bone.
Incus :- Incus is the Middle bone in these three bones. It look likes Anvil in shape.
It is formed by modification of Quadrate Bone.
Stapes :- Stapes is the smallest & Last bone in these three bones. It look likes Stirrup in shape.
It is formed by modification of Hypo-Mandibular Bone.
Stapes is connected to cochlea through Oval(Ovalis) Window(Fenestra).
They connect middle Ear ti Inner Ear. Their are two types are following :-
The oval window, also known as the fenestra ovalis, is a connective tissue membrane located at the end of the middle ear and the beginning of the inner ear.
In the oval window the Scala vestibule (Perilymph fluid) are present
Helicotrema :- which connect the end part of , scala vestibuli and scalaa tympani.
“The Reissnar’s Membrane are present in the Oval Window at the lower side of the Oval Window“.
And Oval window open in Scala Vestibuli.
The round window , is also known as fenestra rotundus, is also a connective tissue membrane located at the beginning of the inner ear and the end of the middle ear.
“The Basilar’s Membrane are present in the Round Window at the Upper side of the Round Window“.
The opening of Round Window in Scala Tympani. Ear and their functions
Note :- Ear and their functions Ear and their functions Ear and their functions
- On Basilar Membrane the Techorial membrane was present and the Sterocilia(When the Sterocilia cell’s move then impulse will be generated now this impulse will send to the Brain) was present on the Organ of Corti (it is a unit of Hearing).
- The Endolymph fluid was present between the Oval window and Round window.
Sterocilia → Movement → Impulse generated → Signal Send to Brain .
In the inner ear, the sound waves are converted into electrical energy, which your hearing nerve delivers to your brain as sound, making it possible for you to hear. At the same time, your inner ear monitors your movements, alerting your brain to changes so your brain can let your body know what to do to stay balanced.
The cochlea is a fluid-filled, spiral-shaped cavity found in the inner ear that plays a vital role in the sense of hearing and participates in the process of auditory transduction. Sound waves are transduced into electrical impulses that the brain can interpret as individual sound frequencies. Ear and their functions
Responsible for balancing is Vestibular Apparatus.
Vestibular Apparatus
- 3 Semi – Circular Canal → Macula →Dynamic Equilibrium [Ampulla , Macula , Cristae Ampullaris.]
- Otoliths / Otaconia / Ear Duct → Saccule & Utricle → Static Equilibrium
Kidney / Excretion system is a process of waste removal in the form produced during metabolic activities.
{Right side kidney is slightly below left side due to above lying liver.}
So… What does the Urinary System Do ?
Renal Pyramid’s → Renal Papillae → Minor Cycles → Major Cycles → Pelvis → Ureter → Urinary Bladder → Outside.
2 Parts of Nephron
Bowman’s capsule is a part of the nephron that forms a cup-like sack surrounding the glomerulus. Bowman’s capsule encloses a space called “Bowman’s space,” which represents the beginning of the urinary space and is contiguous with the proximal convoluted tubule of the nephron.
Golomerules + Bowman’s Capsule = Renal Capsule / Malphigiar
The renal tubule is a portion of the nephron responsible for homeostasis of fluids and electrolytes in the body. A renal tubule consists of a proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct.
Heart → Aorta → Renal Artery →(enter Kidney) → Approx 1 million Afferent Arterioles → Glomerulus → Efferent Arteriole→ Peri-tubular (P.C.T. + D.C.T.) & Vasa Recta (L.O.H.) → Renal Venules → Renal → Inferior venacava → Heart.
Their are 2 types of Nephron
The three steps of urine production are filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. In filtration, molecules and ions pass from the blood to the filtrate within the glomerulus. Reabsorption retains important molecules, glucose, amino acids, ions, and water back into the bloodstream.
Net Filtration Pressure :- Net / Effective Pressure at which Ultra Filtration occur = 10 – 20 mm of Hg {(B.P. Blood Pressure = Increase’s B.P.) , (N.F.P. Net Filtration Rate = Increase N.F.P.)}
Active Re-Absorption :- Glucose , Sodium , Amino Acid.
Passive Re-Absorption :- Remaining Substance’s
Counter Current Mechanism:- Done in 3 Level’s
- Between Descending L.O.H. & Ascending L.O.H.
- Between Descending V.R. & Ascending V.R.
- Between Adjacent Lemb’s of V.R. & L.O.H.
Excretion :- Filtration – Re-Absorption + Secretion.
95% of volume of Normal Urine is Due to Water.
Organic Component’s :-
- Urea
- Urobilinogen
- Uric Acid
- Creatinine
- Amino Acid
- Metabolite’s Of Hormone’s
In-Organic Component’s :-
- Cation’s – Na+ , K+ , Ca++ ,
- Anion’s – Cl- , SO4- , HCO3- , HPO4+
Function’s :-
- Prevent Excessive Loss of Water in Urine.
- Increase Re-Absorption of Water in D.C.T. & C.T.
- Vesocontriction (Blood Pressure Increase)
A.D.H. Produced by Hypothalamus
A.D.H. Released by Post Pituitary.
Osmoreceptor’s in Body , Detcet :-
Osmolarity of Blood (During Summer)
When Osmolarity ↑ (Salt ↑) / H2O↓
⇓
Send signal to Hypothalamus
⇓
Hypothalamus produce A.D.H.
⇓
Effect D.C.T. + C.T.
⇓
H2O Re-Absorption Increase from D.C.T. + C.T.
⇓
Less Urine Formation
Osmolarity of Blood (During Winter)
H2O Level Normal
⇓
No A.D.H.(Anti Diuretic Hormone’s)
⇓
H2O Lost in Urine
⇓
More Urination
Renin :- Kidney
Angiotension :- Liver
Aldosyerone :- Adrenal cortexdd
RAAS is stimulated by → Low B.P. (G.F.R. is decrease)(Na+ is also decrease)
When B.P. decrease (Na+)
↓(Hypotension)
Detected by Macula Densa
↓
Stimulates J.G.C. to release RENIN
↓
Angiotensinogen(In-Active) → Secreated by Liver
↓
Angio-Tension 1 (Less Potent){Angio – Veso , Tension – Constrictor}
↓(Angiotension Converting)
Angio-Tension 2(Strong / More potent) Enzyme (Lungs)
When B.P. Increase (Hypertension)
ANF Secreted by ↓ Artrial Wall’s
Heart / Atrial Muscles release A.N.F.
↓
Suppress R.A.A.S.
↓
Na+ & H2O Loss in Urine
↓
B.P. Decrease’s (Diuresis) Excessive Urination.
Practise of voiding / Emptying Bladder
Urine :- Slightly Acidic pH is 6.8 (Max. Capacity 350 – 500 ml)
150 ml Generate’s Feeling to void . ⇒ Maximum Full Generate Strong urge to Void.
The urinary bladder is a hollow, spherical-shaped organ that holds urine (pee). For most people, it can hold 500-700 mL (about two cups) of pee. When you need to use the restroom, muscles in your bladder contract (tighten) and sphincter muscles in your urethra relax, allowing pee to flow out of your body.
When Hypoxia occurs (Pressence Of O2 decrease’s in Air) {∴ At Higher Altitude the Count of R.B.C. will as Increased}
↓
Stimulate’s Kidney to Produce Erythropoetin. {It required at leats 3-6 month 4-5 → 8 million/mm3}
↓
Stimulated Red Bone Marrow
↓
Increase R.B.C.(Red Blood Cell’s) Production.
The hollow, muscular organ that pumps blood through the body of a vertebrate animal by contracting and relaxing. In humans and other mammals, it has four chambers, consisting of two atria and two ventricles.
It is Protected by Pericardium Layer.
The De-oxygenated blood can be collected by superior Vena-cava into the Right Atrium and then blood can be transfer into Right Ventricle after full fill the Right Ventricular the blood can be transfer to the lung’s by the help of Pulmonary Artery and the blood can be oxygenated by the help of lung’s then the transfer blood again into the Left Atrium after full-fill the Left Atrium the blood goes to Left Ventricular chamber and after full fill Left Ventricular Blood can be transfer to the all body part’s by the help of Aorta.
Their are 3 layer’s of Heart
The wall’s are made up of
The Fossa Ovalis is a hole which is present after the birth.
The septum is the membrane which separate the right and left part of the heart . Separate De-oxygenated blood to Oxygenated blood.
Increase the surface area to hold blood in chamber’s.
The chordae tendinae (CT) are strong, fibrous connections between the valve leaflets and the papillary muscles. These are attached to the leaflets on to the ventricular side and prevent the cusps from swinging back into the atrial cavity during systole.
Chordea made up off collagen
There are 5 papillary muscles in the heart originating from the ventricular walls. These muscles attach to the tricuspid and mitral valve leaflets via the chordae tendineae and functionally prevent regurgitation of ventricular blood via tensile strength by preventing prolapse or inversion of the valves during systole.
Values are muscular flapes . Flapes are prevent from flow of blood in last chamber of the heart.
Artery :- Artery they can take blood away from the Heart.
Vein / Venticle :- Vein / Ventrical they will collect the blood.
Set of event’s which follow impales production by S.A. Node .
Blood Goes Out
Pressure exereted by blood on walls of blood vessels.
Which carry blood away from Heart and toward’s the organs.
Which carry blood toward’s the Heart and collect from the organ’s & tissue’s.
Squeezing / coming out of W.B.C. + Plasma.
The postion of Human Eye’s in Frontal in Location.
Binocular vision can be done by human. (Binocular vision means we can see easily one object from both Eye’s in one time.)
Hollow boll and filled with fluid
1. Made up of 3 Layer’s
Tunica Fibrosa [1. Sclera{Backside(5/6)} 2. Cornea{Frontside(1/6)}]
[Note:-Cornea Get oxygen direct from atmosphere]
. Tunica fibrosa is help to maintain the shape of the Eye
. Sclera can make Posterior part is 5/6 part.(White Par)
. Cornea can make Anterior part and they can make 1/6 part and they will be transparent.(The most successfull transplant cornea because their is no blood supply in cornea.)
It is made up of Blue Colour.
This is second layer and middle layer of Eye this is called Tunica pigmentosa and Tunica vascular.
Melanin pigment was present .
Melanin can absorb the extra light that was enter’s in the Eye.
Pigmentosa can also divided into 3 part’s.
The gap between two Iris is known as pupil.
Through the pupil light can enter’s into the eye Pupil’s size can regulated by the Iris.
This is known as Tunica Nervosa / Neurosensory / Retina.
In this layer neuron’s are present.
In this layer 3 Cell’s are present
Yellow spot (made up of photo receptor’s Cell’s ) was present just behind the pupil at the centre and the other name of Yellow Spot is Mocula Lukia.
The arrangement of the cell’s are Ganglionic then Bipolar at middle and the photo receptor Cell’s are present at last.
At the yellow spot the ganglonic and bipolar Cell’s are absent.
Photo receptor’s Cell’s are two type’s
The len’s are present just behind the iris.
The len’s will be connected by suspensory ligament’s.
By the help suspensory ligament can change the shape and size.
Ciliary Muscle and suspensory ligament can change the focal length of len’s.
Blind spot is that place from that place the nerves are present / rise.
These nerve are known as Optic Nerve.
Optic nerve is the Second cranial nerve.
That is sensory in Nature.
Rode’s and cone’s both are absent on blind spot .
Between len’s and cornea the fluid was present that is known as Aqueous(Fluid) Humor’s(Watery).
Aqueous Humor’s was secrated by ciliary processes
Aqueous Humor’s is responsible for maintain the pressure in the Eye.
Behind the len’s the fluid is also present that is known as Vitreous(Jelly type) Humor’s(Watery)
Mechanism of vision occur’s in two part’s
Part’s Involved :-
When fall’s on yellow spot which contain PRC (Cones)
⇓
Contain Visual → 1)Iodopsin(visual voilet) → Retinal + Photopsin → Red
→ Green
→Blue
Red + Green + Blue = Equal Stimulation of all 3 cone’s can create White sensation
Pigments(photo-sensitive) → 2)Rhodopsin(visual purple) → Retinal + Scotopsin
↓
Undergo Biochemical Change’s
The engineering marvel because its sensory receptor can transduce sound vibrations with amplitude as small as diameter of atom of gold into electrical signal thousand times faster than photoreceptor can respond to light. It also contains receptor for equilibrium. It can also done Balance mechanisms of human body.
a. Auricle
b. Auditory canal
c. Ear drum
Is a flap of elastic cartilage shaped like flared end of trumpet & covered by the skin
The rim of auricle is k/a helix and inferior portion is lobule
The lobule is highly blood supplied part of the ear
The auditory canal is & curved tube about 2.5 cm long
It is located in temporal bone & leads to ear drum
The tympanic membrane or ear drum is a thin semitransparent partition between the auditory canal and middle ear
The tympanic membrane is covered by epidermis and lined by simple cuboidal epithelium
Between the epithelial layer is connective tissue composed of collagen fibers and fibroblast
Near the exterior opening of auditory canal contains a few hair and specialized sweat glands known as cerumionous gland
Ceruminous gland secrets cerumen or wax
The combination of cerumen and hairs prevents dust and foreign object from entering the ear
Cerumen also prevent the damage to delicate skin of external ear canal by water and insects
It is the smallest filled cavity in the petrous portion of temporal bone
It is lined by epithelium and separated by tympanic membrane from outer ear
It forms the internal ear by a thin bony partition that contains 2 membrane covered opening oval window & round window
3 smallest bone (Auditory ossicles) attached to it by ligaments which are connected by synovial joint
It is a hammer shaped bone that attach to the internal surface of tympanic membrane (handle part). The head of malleus is articulate with the body of incus .
It is the anvil shaped bone and its head articulate with the head of stapes.
Stapes :-
It is stirrup shaped bone the footplate or base of stapes fits into oval window
Below the oval window there is another opening is round window which is enclosed by tympanic membrane .
Supplied by mandibular branch of Trigeminal nerve (V)
It limits the movement and increase the tension on ear drum.
Supplied by the facial nerve (VII). It is smallest skeletal
Muscle. It protects the oval window and decrease sensitivity of hearing.
The anterior wall of middle ear contains an opening that leads to eustechian tube (pharyngotympanic)
It is consist of bot bone and elastic cartilage and connects the middle ear with nasopharynx
It is closed at the medial end (pharynx)
During swallowing and yawning its open and allow to air to enter or leave to middle ear until the pressure in the middle ear equal to atmospheric pressure
It is also known as labyrinth because of its complicated series of canal.it consist of 2 main division
The bony labyrinth is series of cavities in the petrous portion of temporal bone. It is divided into 3 areas –
Semicircular anal and vestibule both the contains receptor of equilibrium and cochlea contains the receptor of hearing
The bony labyrinth is lined with periosteum and contains perilymph and chemically similar to CSF
Membranous labyrinth is a series of epithelial sac and tube inside the bony labyrinth. The epithelial membrane contains endlolymph
The level of K+ Ions is high for an ECF and play the important role to generate the electrical signal
superiorly and posteriorly from the vestibule there are 2 semicircular canal each of which approx. right angles to the outer 2
Based on their position they named as anterior, posterior and lateral semicircular canal. The anterior and posterior canals are vertical and lateral one is horizontal
At the one end of each canal is swallowen enlargement known as ampulla
The portion of membranous labyrinth lie inside the bony semicircular canal are known as semicircular ducts. These ducts connects with utricle and saccule
The vestibular branch of VIII CN consist of ampullary , utricular and saccular nerves and responsible for equilibrium
Is the oval central portion of the bony labyrinth. The membranous labyrinth in the vestibule consist of 2 sacs called utricle and saccule which are connected by a small duct.
is a snail shell bony spiral canal which is anterior to vestibule
It makes almost 3 turns around a central body core known as modiolus
a) Cochlear duct (scala media)
b) Scala vestibuli
c) Scala tympani
Cochlear duct is a continuation of membranous labyrinth into cochlea and filled with endolymph
The channel above the cochlear duct is scala vestibuli which ends at the oval window
The channel below is scala tymapni which ends at the round window
Both scala vestibuli and tympani are the part of bony labyrinth and Contains perilymph and both are completely separated to each other by scala media except helicoterma
Vestibular membranes separates the cochlear duct from scala tymapni
On the basilar membrane organ of Corti (Spiral Organ) Rests
At the tip of hair cells 40-80 long hair like micro villi arranged known as stereo cilia
At the base end inner & outer hair cells synapse with VIII CN
A flexible gelatinous membrane cover the hair cells of spiral organ known as tectorial membrane. The body of hair cells rest on basilar membrane
PHYSIOLOGY OF HEARING :-
1. The auricles collects and directs the sound wave in auditory canal
2. Sound wave strike on tympanic membrane and the high & low pressure of air cause tympanic membrane to vibrate
3. The central area of ear drum connects to malleus which also start to vibrate. The vibrations is transmitted from the malleus to incus to stapes4. As stapes moves back & forth it pushes the membrane of oval window in & out
5. The oval window vibrates 20 times more vigorously than ear drum
6. The movement of oval window sets up fluid pressure waves in perilymph of cochlea
7. Oval window pushes on perilymph to scala vestibuli
8. Pressure waves are transmitted from scala vestibuli to scala tymapni to round window
9. Pressure wave push the vestibular membrane back & froth & creates the pressure waves in the endolymph inside the cochlear duct
10. The pressure wave in the endolymph causes the basilar membrane to vibrate
11. This moves the hair cells of spiral organ against tectorial membrane
12. This leads to bending of hair cells stercocilia which produce receptor potential that lead to generation of nerve impulse and leads to hearing
Blood Contain’s
Definition :- Transport nutrient’s , hormones and proteins. It is a yellow liquid that makes up about 55% of the body’s blood volume.
Plasma contain’s Yellowish part of the blood
Plasma mainly contain’s
1. Albumin’s
2. Globulin’s
3. Clotting (Fibrinogen)
The albumine is maintain osmotic Balance of Blood.
The other name of globulin is Immunoglobulin
The Immunoglobulin is also known as Antibodies.
The clotting factor prevent excessive bleeding.
Plasma :- Transport nutrient’s , hormones and proteins. It is a yellow liquid that makes up about 55% of the body’s blood volume.
Platelet’s :- Form clot’s to stop bleeding . Platelet’s make up less than 1% of blood.
Red Blood Cells :- Carry fresh oxygen through the body and remove CO2 (Carbon dioxide). RBC’s make up about 40% – 45%of blood.
White Blood Cells :- Part of the body’s immune system , detect and fight viruses and bacteria. There are five major types of WBC’s and they make up less than 1% of blood.
It is also known as Erythrocytes
The Erythrocytes is divided into two part’s
The first is Erythro and the second is Cytes
The name of Erythrocytes is formed from Erythropoesis
Red Blood cell’s are started from Erythroblast . The meaning of blast precusor cell / mother cell
The life spend of R.B.C. is 120 day’s .
After 120 day’s they goes in our graveyard of R.B.C. is spleen. Because after 120 day’s the R.B.C. was go into the spleen.
The Spleen is also known as Emergency blood blank of the body {in case of excessive bleeding spleen give RBC to the liver and liver divide the hemoglobin(Hb) }
Normal Value / amount / count in Male :- 5 to 5.5 million/mm^3
Female :- 4 to 4.5 million/mm^3
Transport of Gases (H.B.) O2:- Polycythemia
CO2 :- Oxyheamoglobin
CO :- Carboxy (Hb)
(Soldier’s of body)
Normal Count in W.B.C. = 6000 to 8000 / mm^3
Their are Mainly 2 types of WBC’s
It is also known as “Poly morpho nuclear / Leucocyte (P.M.N.L.)”
Acidic and basic granules are present in this W.B.C.
Phagocytosis (they attack first on forein body particle’s).
It is also known as “Secretory”
Basic granules are present in this W.B.C.
It is the largest W.B.C.
The shape of the Nucleus just like Kidney.
In the Monocytes W.B.C. they contain Macrophages.
It is the smallest W.B.C.
The Lymphocyte’s contain’s “Large Nucleus”
In the Lymphocytes the nucleus cover’s “Scanty cytoplasm”
The lymphocytes contain’s “Immune System (Anti-bodies)”
Abnormal Condition of W.B.C. Number’s :-
The other name of Platelet’s is Thrombocytes
The Thrombocytopoesis is drived from “Red Bone Marrow“
Abnormal Condition’s :-
Father of blood group is Karl Lardsteiner.
Blood group discovered in ‘1901’
Theory of Karl Lardsteiner’s :-
I have recently observed and started that the serum of normal people is capable of clumping the red cell’s of other healthy individuals . As commonly expressed, it can be said that in these cases at least two different kinds of agglutinins exit , one kind A, the other in B, both together in C. The cell’s are naturally insensitive to the agglutinins in their own serum.
Blood Group’s are
Ag{Antigen’s} (R.B.C. Surface)
Antibodies (AB) in Plasma
When the blood group is mismatched then the blood cells will be destroy.
At the antigen (A) the antibody (B) are present
{Group A} (Ab) = Antibody B , Ag(Antigen)=A , Donate to= group A & AB , Receive from= A&O
{Group B} (Ab) = Antibody A , Ag(Antigen)=B , Donate to= group B & AB , Receive from= B&O
{Group A & B} (Ab) = Antibody (None) , Ag(Antigen)=A&B , Donate to= group AB , Receive from= A, B, AB, and O(Universal Receiver)
{Group O } (Ab) = Antibody A&B , Ag(Antigen)=None , Donate to= group O, A, B, A & AB(Universal Donar) , Receive from= O.
Rh stands from “Rhesus Monkey” it is discovered from the Rhesus Monkey.
If on the R.B.C. cell’s the Rh cell’s are present then we known as ‘Rh Positive’ if Rh cell’s are absent then we known as ‘Rh negative’.
Rh positive is known as donar Rh positive always gives both positive’s or negative’s (Rh) but Rh negative’s can only take’s from negative.
{The Rh incompatibility always occurs between the mother and the baby after 1st pregnancy and they will be effect during 2nd after 2nd pregnancy.
They will be affect on the baby due to Rh incompatibility baby will be born Still dead.}
Normal Rh incompatibility
Abnormal Rh incompatibility
This condition leads to Erythroblastosis Foetalsis / Haemolytic Disease of Newborn (H.D.N.)
To prevent from IgG the injection will be given to the mother after the 1st delivery . So the injection (Rhogma) will create the brarrier for the IgG then the baby will be normal.
It is first part of respiratory air way that is located in between both orbits.
Anatomically Nose heaving two openings –
nasal cavity opens exterior through anterior nasal pores.
These are located posteriorly through while nasal cavity opens in nose pharynox posterior
1.Transportation:- Air during inhalation and exhalation transmits transmits through nose.
2. Filtration :- Dust particles are traped nasal mucosed.
3. Humidification :- In healed air become most when it comes in contact with mucus.
4. Warmification :- In healed , air becomes warm when it comes in contact with mucus membrane.
5. Resonence :- Nose provides resonance to voice to voice ( para nasal cynes P.N.C. )
6. Allfection :- Nerve ending of allfectory nerve are pre. in mucus membrane of nose.
Nerve ending stimulats when desolved small particles comes in contact.
As a result dipolerization occures and impulse generate.
Generated nerve impulse conduct upto allfectory centres that are pre. in brain (ceribrum)
Sense of small occurs after inter pretation.
It is also known as voice box .
It is a part of respiratory air way that is pre. in mid axis of Neck.
Superiorly it is continous as pharynx while inferiorly its continous as trachea.
Anterior :- Skin , superficial fascie difascia.
Letarly :- Thyroid lobes and carotid verseles, nerve fibers.
Superiorly pharynx, hyoid bone
First tracheal cartilage wall of larynx:-
wall of laynx consist cartilages.
Cartilages are inter connected with the help of ligaments are –
Unpaired cartilage
Paired cartilage
1. Nine cartilages are pre. in wall of larynx.
2. Epiglotis is a elastic cartilage
3. It is a lid like structure that closes in-large of larynx during deglutition (swalowing)
4. Thyroid cartilage having two plates.
5. Both plates form in accute angle in mid axis of Anterior wals of larynx.
6. This angle is more prominant in male and it is called adams apple.
7. Cricoad cartilage is a ring shaped cartilage that is pre. below to thyroid cartilage and above to first tracheal cartilage.
8. Arytenoid cartilage is a paired cartilage and pre. in posterior wall of larynx.
9. It is conical in shape .
10. Corniculate cartilage is a paired cartilage and pre. in posterior wall of larynx.
11. Couniform cartilage is also a paired cartilage and pre. in posterior wall of larynx.
1. It is inner most layer of larynx.
2. It lines larynx interiorly.
3. Ciliated columnor epithelial cells lines mucus membrane. Mucus secrating columnor cells.
4. Blood vessels, nerve fibers, limph vessels and lymphoid folids are fire is sub – mucosal resion.
5. Mucus membrane is modified and forms folds.
6. The fold of mucus membrane that are pre. in inlate of larynx are called fowls vocal cord.
7. Another two folds of mucus membrane pre. below to fowls vocal cord are called true vocal cord.
8. True vocal cord are arranged in ‘V’ shaped.
9. Anteriorly vocal cords are attached with a thyroid cartilage.
10. Posteriorly attached with arytenoid cartilage. Vocal cords are related to voice production.
11. A space that is pre. in between true vocal cord is called rimoglotis.
Arterial supply vein – laringial artry , laringial vein
Nerve supply – recrunt laringial nerve.
1. It transports air during inhalation and exhalation .
2. Humidification
3. Warmification
4. Filtration
5. Phagasytosis:- Tymphoi[ez-toc]d folids form antibodies and lymphocyte cells that degrate micraps.
Vocal cords are pre. in larynx that vibrats during forcefull flow of air and voice production accure high pitch voice production occures in female as more cords.
– Lord voice production or low pitch voice in male is due to low tendency in vocal cord.
Defination :-
It is a wind pipe that pre. in mid axis of neck and in superior or media sternum.
It is a tubular structure that is pre below to larynx and runs down word up to cornia.
Length :-
It’s normal length is 10.5 cm
Anterior :- Skin , superfacial fecia and deep facio
Laterly :- curotid vessels
Superiorly :- Larynx
Inferiorly :- Bronchus
Posterirly :- Essophagus
1. Branches of inferior thyroid artery
2. Lower part is supplied by Branches of Bronchia artery
1. Vein yellow artery
2. Nerve Supply – Autonomic nerve intervent.
Histologicaly different layers are pre. in it’s wall
It is made of fibrous connective tissue
C – shaped cartilages are pre. in this layer
Skin area of cartilage is directed posteriorly.
Tracheal muscles is pre. in skin area.
It is made of arealor connective tissue.
Blood vessels, nerve vessels , nerve fiberus , lymphoid fluids are also pre. in this layer.
It is inner most layer that is lined up by ciliated columnar epithelial cells
Mucus secrating cells are pre.
Defination:- It is a part of a respiration airway that are pre. in medisternum. There are two branches – Right and Left
Broncheal Artery
Veinus Collection – Broncheal vein
Nerve Supply – Autonomic nerve ineratis
A) Fiber’s layer(outer)
B) Cartilagenus Layer :-
Broncheal muscles are pre. in skip area.
C) Sub Mucosa
D) Mucus Membrane
Principal:- Air always moves from High Pressure to Low Pressure
Their are two types of breathing :-
1. Inhalation (Inspiration)
2. Exhalation (Expiration)
Inhalation is represent (U,F,O) .
U:- Upward
F:- Forward
O:- Outward
The contraction of Inter coastal muscles will be done.
During Inhalation the Diaphragm was also play an important role in Breathing . During Inhalation the diaphragm will flate because they support to the Inhalation. Ribs and sternum raised and they represent (U.F.O.= Upward, Forward and Outward.)
When we Inhale then the Diaphragm will move downward because we want to increase volume inside the thoraic cavity
When we Inhale then the volume of Thoraic Cavity will be increase.
When we Inhale then the Pressure of Thoracic cavity will be decrease as compare to the outermost atmosphere.
IN the Exhalation is Ribs moves in the form of (D.B.I.)
D:- Downward
B:- Backward
I:- Inward
During Expiration the ribs and sternum moves/returned to original position and then the Volume of thorax decreased.
When the Ribs and Sternum will become their original position/shape then the volume of thorax will be decreased and then the air expelled from lungs.
The inter coastal muscles will be relax when the Ribs come out their original position.
When we Exhale then the Diaphragm will move downward Ribs will move inward. Then the diaphragm becomes their original shape they become in the dome shape. When the diaphragm becomes dome shape then air come out side then we can easily Exhalation process and alveoli will contract during this process.
Structure involves in forceful breathing.
1. Tidal Volume(T.V.):- Volume of air inspired or expired during a normal respiration(volume of air renewed in the respiratory system during each breathing). 500 ml
2. Inspiratory reserve volume (I.R.V.) or complemental air :- Additional volume of air, that can inspire by forceful inspiration. 2500-3000 ml
3. Expiratory reserve volume(E.V.R.) or supplemental air :- Additional volume of air, that can expire by a forceful expiration. 1000-1100 ml
4. Residal volume(R.V.) :- Volume of air remaining in the lungs after a forcible expiration. 1100-1200 ml
1. Inspiration Capacity (I.C.) [T.V.+I.R.V.] :- Volume of air that can inspire after a normal expiration. 3000-3500 ml volume
2. Expiration Capacity (E.C.)[T.V.+E.R.V.] :- Volume of air that can expire after a normal inspiration. 1500 – 1600 ml volume
3. Functional Residual Capacity(F.R.C.) :- Volume of air that will remain in the lungs after a normal expiration [E.R.V.+R.V.]. 2100 – 2300 ml volume
4. Vital Capacity (V.C.)[E.R.V.+T.V.+I.R.V.] :- Maximum volume of air that can breath in after a forced expiration or maximum volume of air that can breath out after a forced inspiration. 3500 – 4500 ml volume
5. Total Lung Capacity(T.L.C.) :- Total volume of air lungs after a maximum inspiration.[R.V. + E.R.V. + T.V. + I.R.V. or V.C. + R.V.] 5000 – 6000 ml volume
1. Pons Varolhi:- In the pons varolhi their are two parts :-
I). Pneumotoxic Centre :- It is the switch off centre of the inhalation and inspiration .
II). Apnestic Centre :- It is responsible for modulating the depth and rhythm of breathing.
2. Medulla Oblongata:- In the Medulla Oblongata is also two parts:-
I). Dorsal Inspiratory Group :- They also control inspiration they control that how many time we will done inspiration.
II). Ventra Respiratory/Respiration Group :- They control both inspiration and expiration.
Their are two chemical which can help to regulate the breathing
( Hering – Breur’s Reflex)
Gaseous Exchange mainly depend’s upon
1. Pressure / concentration gradient ( High Pressure to Low Pressure).
2. Solubility of gases.
3. Thickness of membranes.
4. Surface area of repiratory membrane.
The gaseous exchange between Alveoli and blood the air gaseous exchange always moves from high pressure to low pressure
The gaseous exchange between Blood to Tissue the air gaseous exchange always moves from high pressure to low pressure
Attmospheric air (inspired air) 159 0.3
Expired Air 116 32
Alveoli Air 104 40
Blood De-oxygenated 40 45
Blood Oxygenated 95 40
Tissue 40 45
The part starts with the ( external nostrils up to the terminal bronchioles).
Lungs are protected by Ribs/Rib cage and Pleura(2 layers)
Structure of medula